I. J. of Business & Management Research
Review Article | 
Integrating Model of Resilience, Engagement, and Motivation
Author(s) : Alison Jolliff 1 and David Strubler 2
Publisher : FOREX Publication
Published : 01 June 2021
e-ISSN : 2347-4696
Page(s) : 178-189
Abstract
Over the past 70 years, resilience, engagement, and motivation (REM) studies have largely developed as independent theoretical and research disciplines. Yet, in conducting a thorough literature review of these three work-related fields, we discovered that they share some identical or similar concepts, e.g., self-efficacy. We also discovered that concepts from these three fields of study could be integrated into a more comprehensive research model. That model can then be used to provide a prescription to help managers improve their employees’ and their organizations’ outcomes of performance, productivity, quality, etc.
Therefore, we provide an analytical review of these theories and research findings as they psychologically impact employees in work environments. We synthesize the growing knowledge regarding the primary factors influencing REM and provide eight useful REM research propositions to inform the model. The model features antecedents to resilience, engagement, and motivation. From this work, we posit that an integrated, practical model will be needed to improve employee involvement and performance that ultimately impacts organizational performance.
Therefore, we focus primarily on those REM psychological characteristics of organizational members as they relate to antecedent concepts and conditions. A critique of the state of the REM literature is provided and targeted suggestions are outlined to guide future empirical and theoretical work in a meaningful direction.
Keywords: Emotional intelligence , Organizational commitment, Leadership , Early childhood education
Alison Jolliff, Learning & Development Specialist, Oakland University, Michigan, USA
David Strubler,Department of Organizational Leadership, School of Education and Human Service, Oakland University, Michigan, USA ; Email: strubler@oakland.edu
[1] Bakker, A., & Demerouti, E. (2007) The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22: 309-328.
[2] Kahn, W. A. (1990) Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at work. The Academy of Management Journal, 33(4): 692-724.
[3] Delaney, M. L. & Royal, M. A. (2017) Breaking Engagement Apart: The Role of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Engagement Strategies. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 10(1): 127-140.
[4] Bandura, A. (1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Stanford, USA : W.H. Freeman.
[5] Miele, D. B., & Scholer, A. A. (2016) Self-regulation of Motivation. In: Wentzl, K. R., Miele, D. B. (Eds.), Handbook of Motivation at School. (pp. 363-384). New York, USA: Routledge.
[6] Bandura, A. (1971) Psychological modeling; conflicting theories. Chicago, USA: Aldine-Atherton.
[7] Bandura, A. (2012) On the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited. Journal of Management, 38(1): 9-44.
[8] Bandura, A. (2015). On Deconstructing Commentaries Regarding Alternative Theories of Self-Regulation. Journal of Management, 41(4): 1025-1044.
[9] Vancouver, J., & Kendall, L. (2006) When Self-Efficacy Negatively Relates to Motivation and Performance in a Learning Context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5): 1146-1153.
[10] Vancouver, J., & Purl, J. (2017) A Computational Model of Self-Efficacy’s Various Effects on Performance: Moving the Debate Forward. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(4): 599-616.
[11] Kobasa, S. (1979) Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1): 1-11.
[12] Rutter, M. (1985) Resilience in the face of adversity. Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 147: 598-611.
[13] Rodríguez-Rey, R., Palacios, A., Alonso-Tapia, J., Pérez, E., Álvarez, E., et al. (2017) Posttraumatic growth in pediatric intensive care personnel: Dependence on resilience and coping strategies. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(4): 407-415.
[14] Walsh, D. M. J., Morrison, T. G., Conway, R. J., Rogers, E., Sullivan, F. J., et al. (2018) A model to predict psychological- and health-related adjustment in men with prostate cancer: The role of post traumatic growth, physical post traumatic growth, resilience and mindfulness. Frontiers in Psychology, 9: 12.
[15] Luthans, F., Youssef, C., & Avolio, B. (2007) Psychological Capital: Developing the Human Competitive Edge. New York, USA: Oxford University Press.
[16] Snyder, C., Feldman, D., Taylor, J., Schroeder, L., & Adams, V. (2000) The roles of hopeful thinking in preventing problems and enhancing strengths. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 9(4): 249-269.
[17] Seligman, M. (2017) Building Resilience. In: M. Seligman, T. Schwartz, W. Bennis, and R. Thomas, (Eds.), On Mental Toughness, (pp. 25-26). Boston, MA, USA: Harvard Business Review Press.
[18] Peterson, C., Park, N., & Castro, C. A. (2011) Assessment for the U.S. army comprehensive soldier fitness program: The global assessment tool. American Psychologist, 66(1): 10-18.
[19] Cornum, R., Matthews, M. D., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2011) Comprehensive soldier fitness: Building resilience in a challenging institutional context. American Psychologist, 66(1): 4-9.
[20] Rees, C.S., Breen, L.J., Cusack, L., & Hegney, D. (2015) Understanding individual resilience in the workplace: The international collaboration of workforce resilience model. Frontiers of Psychology, 6: 73.
[21] Windle, G., Bennett, K. M., & Noyes, J. (2011) A methodological review of resilience measurement scales. Health Quality of Life Outcomes, 9: 8.
[22] Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003) Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression & Anxiety, 18: 71-82.
[23] McLarnon, M. J. W. & Rothstein, M. G. (2013) The Development and Validation of the Workplace Resilience Inventory. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 12(2): 63-73.
[24] Geers, A. L., Wellman, J. A., & Lassiter, G. D. (2009) Dispositional optimism and engagement: The moderating influence of goal prioritization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4): 913-932.
[25] Happer, K., Brown, E. J., & Sharma-Patel, K. (2017) Children’s resilience and trauma-specific cognitive behavioral therapy: Comparing resilience as an outcome, a trait, and a process. Child Abuse & Neglect, 73: 30.
[26] Garcia-Dia, M. J., DiNapoli, J. M., Garcia-Ona, L., Jakubowski, R., & O’Flaherty, D. (2013) Concept analysis: resilience. Psychiatric Nursing, 27: 264-270.
[27] Shuck, B., & Wollard, K. (2010) Employee Engagement and HRD: A Seminal Review of the Foundations. Human Resource Development Review, 9(1): 89-110.
[28] Shuck, B. (2011) Four emerging perspectives of employee engagement: an integrative literature review. Human Resource Development Review, 10 (3): 304-328.
[29] Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. (1981) The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behavior (pre-1986), 2(2): 99-113.
[30] Harter, J., Schmidt, F., & Hayes, T. (2002) Business-Unit-Level Relationship Between Employee Satisfaction, Employee Engagement, and Business Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2): 268-279.
[31] Saks, A. (2006) Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21(7): 600-619.
[32] Simpson, M. (2009) Engagement at Work: A review of the literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 46: 1012 -1024.
[33] Knight, C., Patterson, M., & Dawson, J. (2017) Building work engagement: A systematic review and meta-analysis investigating the effectiveness of work engagement interventions. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(6): 792-812.
[34] Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (1997) The Truth about Burnout: How Organizations Cause Personal Stress and What to Do about It. San Francisco, CA, USA: Jossey-Bass.
[35] Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002) The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two-sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1): 71-92.
[36] Cole, M. S., Walter, F., Bedeian, A. G., & O’Boyle, E. H. (2012) Job burnout and employee engagement a meta-analytic examination of construct proliferation. Journal of Management, 38(5): 1550-1581.
[37] Imperatori, B. (2017) Engagement and disengagement at work: Drivers and organizational practices to sustain employee passion and performance New York, NY, USA: Springer Science & Business Media.
[38] Schaufeli, W. B. & Bakker, A. B. (2004) Job demands, job resources, and the relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25: 293-315.
[39] Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2009) Reciprocal relationships between job resources, personal resources, and work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(3): 235-244.
[40] Kim, W., Kolb, J., & Kim, T. (2013) The relationship between work engagement and performance: A review of empirical literature and a proposed research agenda. Human Resource Development Review, 12(3): 248-276.
[41] Hobfoll, S. E., Johnson, R. J., Ennis, N., & Jackson, A. P. (2003) Resource loss, resource gain, and emotional outcomes among inner city women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(3): 632-643.
[42] Bakker, A., Schaufeli, W., Leiter, M., & Taris, T. (2008) Work engagement: An emerging concept in occupational health psychology. Work & Stress, 22(3): 187-200.
[43] Bakker, A., & Albrecht, S. (2018) Work engagement: current trends. Career Development International, 23(1): 4-11.
[44] Sonnentag, S., Dormann, C. and Demerouti, E. (2010) “Not all days are created equal: The concept of state work engagement”. In: A.B. Bakker & M.P. Leiter, (Eds.), Work Engagement: A Handbook of Essential Theory and Research, pp. 25-38. Hove, Sussex: Psychology Press.
[45] Vroom, V. H. (1964) Work and Motivation. New York, USA: Wiley.
[46] Vroom, V. H. (1995) Work and Motivation (revised edition). San Francisco, CA, USA: Jossey-Bass.
[47] Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959) The Motivation to Work. New York, USA: John Wiley.
[48] Herzberg, F. (1987) One more time: how do you motivate employees? (HBR Classic). Harvard Business Review, 65.
[49] Locke, E., & Latham, G. (1990) A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.
[50] Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2006) New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15: 265-268.
[51] Hackman, J., Oldham, G., & Feishman, E. (1975) Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(2): 159-170.
[52] Koch, S. (1955) Behavior as "intrinsically" regulated: Work notes towards a pre-theory of phenomena called "Motivational.". In: M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation:1955 (pp. 42-87) University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE.
[53] Lepper, M. R., & Greene, D. (1975) Turning play into work: Effects of adult surveillance and extrinsic rewards on children's intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(3): 479-486.
[54] Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973) Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "over-justification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1): 129-137.
[55] Deci, E., & Lanzetta, J. (1971) Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(1): 105-115.
[56] Deci, E., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. (1999) A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6): 627-668.
[57] Rutter, M. (2012) Resilience as a dynamic concept. Development and Psychopathology, 24(2): 335-344.
[58] Salanova, M., Llorens, S., & Schaufeli, W. (2011) “Yes, I can, I feel good, and I just do it!” On gain cycles and spirals of efficacy beliefs, affect, and engagement. Applied Psychology-An International Review-Psychologie Appliquee-Revue Internationale, 60(2): 255-285.
[59] O’Shea, D., Buckley, F., & Halbesleben, J. (2017) Self-regulation in entrepreneurs: Integrating action, cognition, motivation, and emotions. Organizational Psychology Review, 7(3): 250-278.
[60] Rothstein, M. G., McLarnon, M.J.W., & King, G. A. (2016) The Role of Self-Regulation in Workplace Resiliency. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 9: 416-421.
[61] Gailliot, M. T., Schmeichel, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006) Self-regulatory processes defend against the threat of death: Effects of self-control depletion and trait self-control on thoughts and fears of dying. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1): 49-62.
[62] Beattie, S., Dempsey, C., Roberts, R., Woodman, T., & Cooke, A. (2017) The moderating role of narcissism on the reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and performance. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 6(2): 199-214.
[63] Miele, D. B., & Scholer, A. A. (2018) The role of metamotivational monitoring in motivation regulation. Educational Psychologist, 53: 1-21.
[64] Maslow, A. (1967) A Theory of Metamotivation.: The Biological Rooting of the Value-Life. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 7(2): 93-127.
[65] Fujita, K. (2011) On conceptualizing self-control as more than the effortful inhibition of impulses. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(4): 352-366.
[66] Gallagher, M. W., Long, L. J., Richardson, A., & D'Souza, J. M. (2019) Resilience and coping in cancer survivors: The unique effects of optimism and mastery. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 43(1): 32-44.
[67] Montpetit, M. A., & Tiberio, S. S. (2016) Probing resilience: Daily environmental mastery, self-esteem, and stress appraisal. The International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 83(4): 311-332.
[68] Schaufeli, W. B., & Salanova, M. (2010) How to improve work engagement? In: S. L. Albrecht (Ed.), Handbook of employee engagement: Perspectives, issues, research and practice; handbook of employee engagement: Perspectives, issues, research and practice (pp. 399-415). Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
[69] Pink, D. H. (2009) Drive. New York, USA: Riverhead.
[70] Clarke, R.C. (2016) Building Expertise: cognitive methods for training and performance improvement. San Francisco, USA: Wiley.
[71] Schweder, S. (2019) Mastery goals, positive emotions and learning behavior in self-directed vs. teacher-directed learning. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 35: 205-223.
[72] Dweck, C. (2008) Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, USA: Ballantine Books.
[73] Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976) Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16: 250-279.
[74] Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1980) Work redesign. Reading, MA, USA: Addison-Wesley.
[75] Reivich, K., & Shatte, A. (2002) The Resilience Factor. New York, USA: Crown Publishing Group.
[76] Seligman, M. (1990). Learned optimism. New York, USA: A.A. Knopf.
[77] Seligman, M. E. (1972) Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine, 23: 407-412.
[78] Baron, R. A., Mueller, B. A., & Wolfe, M. T. (2016) Self-efficacy and entrepreneurs' adoption of unattainable goals: The restraining effects of self-control. Journal of Business Venturing, 31(1): 55-71.
[79] Vancouver, J., Thompson, C., & Williams, A. (2001) The Changing Signs in the Relationships Among Self-Efficacy, Personal Goals, and Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(4): 605-620.
[80] Hakanen, J. J., Schaufeli, W. B. & Ahola, K. (2008) The job demands-resources model: A three-year cross-lagged study of burnout, depression, commitment, and work engagement. Work & Stress: An International Journal of Work, Health & Organisations, 22(3): 224-241.
[81] Zeijen, M., Peeters, M., & Hakanen, J. (2018) Workaholism versus work engagement and job crafting: What is the role of self-management strategies? Human Resource Management Journal, 28(2): 357-373.
[82] Nguyen, T., Carnevale, J., Scholer, A., Miele, D., & Fujita, K. (2019) Metamotivational Knowledge of the Role of High-Level and Low-Level Construal in Goal-Relevant Task Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117(5): 876-899.
[83] Gordon, H. J., Demerouti, E., Le Blanc, P.M., Bakker, A. B., Bipp, T., et al. (2018) Individual job redesign: Job crafting interventions in healthcare. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 104: 98.
[84] Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2012) Development and validation of the job crafting scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(1): 173-186.
[85] Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York, NY, USA: Harper & Row.
[86] Loscalzo, Y., & Giannini, M. (2017) Clinical conceptualizations of workaholism: A comprehensive model. Organizational Psychology Review, 7(4): 306-329.
[87] Salanova, M., Schaufeli, W. B., Xantholpoulou, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2010) The gain spiral of resources and work engagement: Sustaining a positive work-life. In: A. B. Bakker & M. P. Leiter, (Eds.) Work Engagement: A Handbook of Essential Theory and Research, (pp. 118-131). New York, NY, USA: Psychology Press.
[88] Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Xanthopoulou, D. (2011) Do transformational leaders enhance their followers daily work engagement? The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1): 121-131.
[89] Frey, L.R., Botan, C.H., Friedman, P.G., & Kreps, G. (1991) Investigating Communication: An Introduction to Research methods. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.
Alison Jolliff and David Strubler (2021),Integrating Model of Resilience, Engagement, and Motivation. IJBMR 9(2), 178-189. DOI: 10.37391/IJBMR.090208.